Occupational and Environmental Pesticide Exposure and the Risk of Alzheimers Disease - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2355 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2019/04/12 Category Medicine Essay Level High school Tags: Alzheimer's Disease Essay Did you like this example? This literature review discusses the possible connection between pesticide exposure and the risk of developing Alzheimers disease (AD). After thorough examination of peer-reviewed and literature review articles, data revealed there is an association between the risk of Alzheimers disease and pesticide exposure, primarily limited to those with a history of occupational pesticide exposure. Only brief evidence of environmental pesticide exposure and risk of Alzheimers disease was found. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Occupational and Environmental Pesticide Exposure and the Risk of Alzheimers Disease" essay for you Create order While each article touched on the aforementioned topic, the literature also emphasized the importance for supplementary research on specific pesticide classes, as results indicated organophosphates and organochlorines pose the most significant risk in developing Alzheimers disease. The literature presented distinctly called to action further research on this connection primarily in female populations, as the link between pesticide exposure and risk of Alzheimers disease in males is more apparent. Further study on this topic may include new research examining pesticide usage in food products, as eating pesticide-altered foods is a mechanism of everyday pesticide exposure in both genders, not yet explored in literature. If this research is conducted, there is potential for change in overall pesticide usage, policies on pesticides, and possible reduction in cases of Alzheimers disease. Keywords: pesticides, pesticide exposure, occupational, environmental, Alzheimers disease, risk factors, neurological disorders Pesticide Exposure and the Risk of Alzheimers Disease There is long-standing evidence that pesticides can be responsible for certain acute and chronic health effects. Although there are thousands of studies on pesticides and their link to conditions such as cancers, reproductive health, and Parkinsons disease, data is lacking in regards to pesticide exposure and their relationship to the risk of developing Alzheimers disease (AD). Current findings suggest pesticide exposure may cause the loss of neuron signaling, resulting in cognitive decline, impaired memory/attention, and motor function, all of which are common neurobehavioral symptoms of AD (Baldi et al., 2003, Parrin, Requena, Hernandez, Alarcin, 2011). Databases such as PubMed and ScienceDirect were used to find peer-reviewed articles that applied to this topic between the years 2001 and 2014. Mesh headings included risk of AD, risk factors for AD, occupational pesticide exposure, and environmental pesticide exposure. The majority of literature that surfaced pertaining to pestici de exposure and its association with increased risk of AD consisted of cohort, case-control, and ecological studies, with a focus on populations where occupational or environmental mechanisms were the origins of exposure. This paper discusses the current evidence on the association between daily occupational and environmental pesticide exposure and the risk of developing AD by examining five peer-reviewed articles and one literature review. The presented literature highlights how risk of AD may differ between occupational and environmental pesticide exposures, specific types of pesticides and possible elevated risks of AD, as well as explanations representing the lack of data on pesticide exposure and risk of AD in female populations. Literature Review Occupational and Environmental Pesticide Exposures The factors distinguishing occupational pesticide exposure from environmental pesticide exposure include the intentional, direct usage of pesticides by a person during their daily occupation, typically in farming and agricultural industries (Quissell, 2018). Conversely, environmental pesticide exposure may include the unintentional contamination of soil, water, air, and vegetation from pesticides (Quissell, 2018). For the purposes of this review, the latter is considered independent from occupational pesticide exposure. A prospective cohort study published in The American Journal of Epidemiology reported a significant association between AD and occupational pesticide exposure, explaining that the French elderly, aged 65 and older, who previously worked in vineyards or agricultural settings had over two times the risk of developing AD due to their occupation (Baldi et al., 2003). It is also important to emphasize this positive association still occurred after adjusting for smoking and education levels (2003). By the last follow-up session, researchers found a cumulative exposure for a total of 228 subjects, twenty-six of whom presented with AD, translating to 30.7 cases per 1,000 person-years (Baldi et al., 2003). This study suggests that not only may short-term cognitive impairments occur in occupationally exposed individuals, but AD development is also a possible and more severe result of occupational pesticide exposure, even after long-term work cessation (Baldi et al., 2003). A more recent case-control study published in The American Academy of Neurology explained similar conclusions on occupational pesticide exposure and the risk of AD. After assessment of self-reported exposure data and cognitive statuses in residents of Cache County, Utah, researchers concluded that of the 572 pesticide-exposed individuals, over 40% of those exposed reported farming as their primary occupation (Hayden et al., 2010). More importantly, 344 of the pesticide-exposed individuals were all diagnosed with AD (2010). These results provide evidence that there is a correlation between occupational pesticide exposure and development of AD. However, this correlation also poses the argument that pesticide exposure outside of occupational settings and risk of AD is also possible, as not all of the 344 pesticide-exposed individuals reported exposure from only occupational history. This latter statement is evidence suggesting that in general, pesticides could be an overall risk factor in developing AD. Although data seems consistent in occupational pesticide exposure and risk of AD, the two studies that evaluated the association between environmental pesticide exposure and risk of AD differed immensely. In a case-control study developed in the Saguenay-Lac region of Quebec, Canada, researchers aimed to find an association between environmental pesticide exposure and risk of AD, basing their conclusions on assessment of pesticide, herbicide, and insecticide spraying activity in residential areas (Gauthier et al., 2001). After controlling for genetic, occupational, and sociodemographic factors, the results failed to show a connection between significant risk of AD and exposure to any and all pesticides (2001). In a literature review published in Toxicology, authors consider the outcome of Gauthier et al. (2001) invalid, as the central measure of environmental exposure was indirectly assessed based on residence and the Agriculture Statistics of Canada for pesticide-spraying activity i n only a few areas (Zaganas et al., 2013, p.6). Conversely, an ecological study conducted in Andalusia, Spain, provides some evidence that the risk of AD is in fact greater in populations living near farm and agricultural lands where there is high pesticide usage (Parrin, Requena, Hernndez, Alarin, 2011). Parin, Requena, Hernndez, Alarcn (2011) explain how pesticide residues can travel into surrounding water, soil, and even air from nearby agricultural land and farms, becoming a harmful substance to those in proximity (p.380). This concept is one mechanism of environmental pesticide exposure, and a potential reason why populations living in areas of high pesticide usage have a greater risk of AD (Parr?n, Requena, Hernandez, Alarcin, 2011). This data is particularly significant for the association between environmental pesticide exposure and risk of AD because researchers controlled for all occupations relating to agriculture. Therefore, data only represented participants exposed to pesticides based on proximity to agricultural practices and farmlands, compared to those who lived closer to urban settings. In other words, results propose that there is an association between environmental pesticide exposure and higher risk of AD, independent from occupational exposure. Although Gauthier et al. (2001) did not provide evidence of an association between environmental pesticide exposure and risk of AD, it is important to note that this study is an example of the clear-cut gap in current literature on environmental pesticide exposure and the risk of AD itself. Further research strictly on environmental pesticide exposure and the risk of ADis crucial to provide a consensus in data. This research should answer if environmental pesticide exposure includes more categories in addition to contamination of soil, water, air, and household pesticides. Research should call into question if duration of environmental pesticide exposure has an effect on the risk of AD, if certain classifications of pesticides have a higher risk than others in comparison to widely used occupational pesticides, as well as possible ways to eradicate environmental pesticide exposures. Types of Pesticides and Elevated Risk of AD Part of the difficulty in determining if pesticide exposures are truly associated with risk of AD is the lack of science-based evidence regarding the harmful effects of specific pesticide classes. Media, news outlets, and even documentaries about the agricultural industry have instilled the idea that the four classes of pesticides are not created equal, and some are far worse than others. According to science-based literature, there is some truth to this statement, as research suggests two specific pesticides, organophosphates and organochlorines, statistically show a correlation in the risk of developing AD (Hayden et al., 2010, Richardson et al., 2014). Before its official ban in 1972, the organochlorine DDT, was one of the most widely used pesticides in U.S. agriculture (Richardson et al., 2014). The knowledge of DDT persistence in the environment and its ability to accumulate in tissues over a long period of time led researchers at The Robert Wood Johnson Medical School at Rutger s University to examine serum levels of patients with AD who previously had an occupational history of DDT exposure (Richardson et al., 2014). Results indicated that serum levels of DDT were significantly elevated in 80% of their patients with AD, which suggests organochlorines may have a greater effect in the risk of developing AD over other classes of pesticides (2014). In the Cache County case-control study, questions during assessment of exposure addressed four specific types of pesticides including organophosphates, carbamates, organochlorines (DDT), and methyl bromides (Hayden et al., 2010). Results identified that of the 572 individuals who reported pesticide exposure, 316 reported exposure to organophosphates, 256 to organochlorines, 28 to methyl bromides, and 25 to carbamates (2010). Aside from organophosphates and organochlorines being the two pesticides participants were numerically most exposed to, data revealed that participants who were exposed to organophosphates had the highest risk of AD (53% higher), with organochlorines posing only slightly less risk (Hayden et al., 2010, p.1528). Unlike most of the data that grouped all pesticide classes together, both Richardson et al. (2014) and Hayden et al. (2010) called attention to which types of pesticides may significantly increase the risk of AD. It is important to draw the connection between these two studies, for their findings promoted the hypothesis that toxicity levels in pesticides are variable based on classification. Although these two studies point to clear evidence suggesting exposure to organophosphates and organochlorines pose greater risks in developing AD, further research is necessary to determine levels of toxicity across all classes of pesticides and possible synergistic effects. Pesticide Exposure and AD in Males versus Females Across the literature, data suggests most pesticide exposure occurs in male-dominated occupational settings, making the association between pesticide exposure and the risk of AD extremely prevalent among males (Hayden et al., 2010). Despite female participant inclusion at the origin of all studies, researchers clearly emphasized there was no significant association of occupational pesticide exposure and risk of AD in females, (Baldi et al., 2003, p.413-14). Furthermore, it was also determined that males living in areas with high pesticide usage showed nearly double the risk of presenting with AD in comparison to females (Parr?n, Requena, Hernndez, Alarc?n, 2011). This trend reveals that males seem to have a higher risk in developing AD through both occupational and environmental pesticide exposures. The largest gap across literature is relevant data on female pesticide exposure and the risk of AD. This is ironic considering AD in general disproportionately affects older female populations (Zaganas et al., 2013). In Zaganas et als. (2013) literature review, researchers emphasized that of the fourteen studies assessed, the majority of research failed to include reasoning as to why there may be a difference in male versus female pesticide exposure and risk of AD (Zaganas et al., 2013). Researchers attribute some lack of data to the sheer fact that research on AD development itself is still underway, whereas data on other neurological diseases, such as Parkinsons, are more readily available and extensive (Zaganas et al., 2013). Conclusions and Future Study Through close examination of the literature, concrete evidence displayed the risk of AD increased for those with a history of occupational pesticide exposure. However, the conclusions in studies that examined environmental pesticide exposure and the risk of AD were far less clear. Some literature emphasized the danger in specific pesticides such asorganophosphates and organochlorines, but most studies failed to draw attention to which pesticides may have caused a more severe connection in the risk of developing AD. Moreover, it was apparent that not only is overall data on this topic still minimal, but data on female pesticide exposure and risk of AD is almost non-existent. Baldi et al. (2003) and Gauthier et al. (2001) failed to communicate speculations as to why there was no significant association in female populations, while Richardson et al. (2014) disregarded gender, and classified his participants only by occupational exposure. Further research on the link between pesticide ex posure and risk of AD must include a way of measuring exposure that is generalizable across a majority of populations. Initiative in examining pesticide-altered foods, provided by agricultural and food industries, is one way to achieve new data solely on environmental pesticide exposure, specific pesticide toxicity classifications, and statistical differences in both genders, as eating pesticide-altered foods is a mechanism of daily pesticide exposure not yet explored in literature. References Baldi, I., Lebailly, P., Mohammed-Brahim, B., Letenneur, L., Dartigues, J. F., Brochard, P. (2003). Neurodegenerative diseases and exposure to pesticides in the elderly. American Journal of Epidemiology, 157(5), 409â€Å"414. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwf216 Gauthier, E., Fortier, I., Courchesne, F., Pepin, P., Mortimer, J., Gauvreau, D. (2001). Environmental pesticide exposure as a risk factor for Alzheimers disease: A case-control study. Environmental Research, 86(1), 37â€Å"45. https://doi.org/10.1006/enrs.2001.4254 Hayden, K. M., Norton, M. C., Darcey, D., stbye, T., Zandi, P. P., Breitner, J. C. S., Welsh-Bohmer, K. A. (2010). Occupational exposure to pesticides increases the risk of incident AD: The Cache County Study. Neurology, 74(19), 1524â€Å"1530. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181dd4423 Parrin, T., Requena, M., Hernandez, A. F., Alarcin, R. (2011). Association between environmental exposure to pesticides and neurodegenerative diseases. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 256(3), 379â€Å"385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2011.05.006 Quissell, K. (2018, March 15). Pesticides. [PowerPoint slides]. Retreived from https://learn.bu.edu/webapps/portal/execute/tabs/tabAction?tab_tab_group_id=_10_1 Richardson, J. R., Roy, A., Shalat, S. L., Von Stein, R. T., Hossain, M. M., Buckley, B., German, D. C. (2014). Elevated serum pesticide levels and risk for Alzheimer disease. JAMA Neurology, 71(3), 284â€Å"290. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2013.6030 Zaganas, I., Kapetanaki, S., Mastorodemos, V., Kanavouras, K., Colosio, C., Wilks, M. F., Tsatsakis, A. M. (2013). Linking pesticide exposure and dementia: What is the evidence? Toxicology, 307(May), 3â€Å"11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2013.02.002

Essay on E-Waste Recycling - 1501 Words

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How technology affects our lives free essay sample

Have you ever considered how different our lives would be without the continued advancement in technology? Technology today has become such a big part of our lives. When you’re out in a public place, for example the mall, and you look around almost everyone has cells phones, tablets, ipods, or portable game systems. There are a lot of things such as the internet, that have made our lives a little easier and we have become almost dependent on that we can’t imagine living without. Technology is helping the world globally stay connected faster than we can begin to imagine. Today technology is being used in ways that didn’t seem possible forty to fifty years ago. Technology today is being used to find better ways to produce clean energy, creating a more efficient work force, and making amazing advances in the field of medicine. Technology has become a part of our everyday life. We will write a custom essay sample on How technology affects our lives or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page We see the effects of technology and its changes every day in how we communicate, learn, and how it affects the medical field. New technologies have transformed education, everything from smart phones to smart boards. These tools have enhanced communication, research and literacy. Technology has helped to make it more convenient for almost anyone to attend college and obtain degrees from the comfort of your own home. The convenience of being able to take classes online without having to step foot in a traditional classroom can be very appealing. It has made it possible for many people to continue their education, people who otherwise would not be able to fit college into their busy lifestyles between work and other family obligations. 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Changes in the medical field from the instruments being used, to medicines prescribed to patients to operations performed are effects of changes in technology. From treating cancer and delivering babies to dealing with heart attacks, doctors have developed technology and improved techniques (Hendricks, 2013). Doctors are now able to save patients they may have never been able to save before because of the advancement in technology. Positive impacts of technology in the medical field are discoveries such as antibiotics, vaccines, organ transplants, and heart surgeries. CAT scans and MRI’s have saved many lives. These machines are monitored by a computer making it more accurate and less likely to result in human error. When it comes to healthcare there aren’t many negative outcomes of the growth of technology. The problem modern doctors face is a broken medical system and rigid insurance companies (Hendricks, 2013). In conclusion these are just a few of the positive effects of technology in our lives; it has become very useful on a daily basis. People are always looking for the most convenient and easiest way to do their work, ultimately we are becoming evermore reliant on our computers and without them we would be lost (Pretty, 2008). Of the negative effects of technology in our lives, the one that stands out is its interference on human relationship. With so many people with iPods, tablets, handheld gaming systems and smart phones we’ve detached ourselves from the outside work and one another. The positives of the innovations in technology by far outweigh the negatives.

The Evolution of the World Essay Thesis Example For Students

The Evolution of the World Essay Thesis Ancient HistoryThe Greek geographers of the later Roman period developed systematiccalculations for the mapping and shaping of the earth. However, whatwould come to replace these systematic calculations? Why were theideologies of a flat earth accepted and why were those of a sphericalearth ridiculed? The answer to this question is very simple and can beanswered by one clear and concise word: Religion. Thus saith the Lord God; This is Jerusalem: I have set it in the midstof the nations and countries that are round about her. (Ezekiel 5:5)This verse from the of book Ezekiel simply states that the city ofJerusalem should be in the center of all maps created. This eliminatedthe need for any latitude or longitude. Before hand, there had been morethan six hundred maps created, not one having this holy city as thecenter. There was nothing new about putting the most sacred place atthe center says Boorstin. The Hindus placed Mount Meru, a mythological70,000 foot high mountain at the center of their map. In the Muslimfaith, the Kabah in Mecca was the highest point on earth and thepolestar showed the city of Mecca to be opposite the center of the sky. We will write a custom essay on The Evolution of the World Thesis specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now As one can clearly see, many maps, had different centers. Each map had adifferent center, each based on a different religion. Many years before the birth of Jesus Christ, the Greeks theorized thatthe earth was a globe. But after that, there was a period in historycalled The Great Interruption. This period was categorized by acomplete silence where people in general, forgot about the issue ofwhether the earth was flat or whether it was a globe. Another reasonthat brought the theories of a globular world to rest was because thepriests told the general public that the earth was flat. Priests such asSt. Augustine and others invented the Antipode theory, which stated thata world shaped like a globe is impossible because objects would behanging downwards and growing backwards. Once again, religion played amajor part in this argument that would rage on for many years to come. To conclude, much like the theories of the priests in the first 400years after the birth of Jesus Christ, who said that Jerusalem was thecenter of a flat earth, one might be able to relate this period in timeto a much more recent and modern one. Prior to the French Revolution in1789, France was ruled by an absolute divine right monarchy. Theinstitution that had the most power at the time was the Catholic church. No one in France would ever dare question the word of the Church. Everything the Church said had to be true and that was that. This isfurther reinforced by the churchs persecution of Copernicus who lateragain theorized that the earth was not the center of the solar system. This illustrates that 1000 years later, religion remained the backboneof society, and to a lesser extent, the same still holds true today incertain societies.

buy custom Letter of Advice on Constitutional Law essay

buy custom Letter of Advice on Constitutional Law essay I hope you are doing well. Before, we begin our discussion I will shed some light on the constitutional law. Constitutional Law is the body of law defining the relationship of different entities within a state. This includes the cabinet, legislature and the judiciary. The Stop the Bill (2012) put up by the Federal Opposition provides in section 5 that: if any marine vessel with persons aboard who do not possess valid documentation for lawful entry into Australia, approaches Australian territorial waters with the intent to enter Australian territory, or enters Australian territory, that vessel shall be forcibly removed from Australian waters by Australian military vessels, or other military equipment which may be deemed necessary. This is bill majorly tries to stop any entry to the country irrespective of the reasons behind the need for entry. It is important to analyze this bill as it goes to the House of Representatives and the senates given that there have been disastrous cases as a result of in-admission and consequently drowning which has been comprehensively covered in this letter. It has further covered aspects of refugee seeking asylum in Australia which are related to the bill. Discussion According to Douglas (2009, p.142), Australia has a yearly quota of some 13,700-refugee admissions, which, in proportion to its population, is one of the highest in the world. Just like in all other countries, entry into the country is granted on basis of having valid documentation which includes visas or Electronic Travel Authorization. The policy of the Australian Government is that, despite this distinction in law, asylum seekers who arrive in excised offshore places, namely asylum seekers who arrive by boat will also be subject to mandatory detention (Linda, 2011, p.1) However, looking at a case of August 2002, a boat with 400 refugees on board sunk after allegedly being denied entry to Australia by the government reulting to the death of 353 of the refugees after they drowned (Catherine, 2005, p.26). These were people seeking their democratic right to seek refuge in Australia (Bede, 2009, p.1). Taking up responsibilities for such catastrophes is imaginable and everyone will try to clear themselves without considering that human rights have been infringed with loses of lives. According to Stanley (2010, p.12), powerful circumstantial evidence strongly suggests that the drowning were the direct result of deliberate political decisions taken by the government. In 2010 a total of 82 boats were identified transporting an average of 47 illegal immigrants (UNHCR, 2010, p.1). The total estimates a total of 3,934 people. With the cost of illegal movement to Australia estimated at between US$5,000 and $10 000 per person, these, by the standards of the region were the super affluent who could afford the expense and the queue jumping that it provided (Douglas, 2009, p.42). It could be because of such reasons that the opposition is putting forward this bill. It is evident that both the cases of illegal movement to Australia by boats are not acceptable. However, proper analysis will indicate that at times it is necessary to grant asylum as shown by the case of the drowned refugees (United Nations, 2009, p.2). With the fundamental International human rights currently in place, it is most likely that the court would give a ruling against the bill considering the implications and relations with the international states (UNHCR, 2001, p.1). This means that the bill could be challenged in a court of law citing disasters that may result in cases of denied entry. Talking of section 5(b) of the bill, should there be a person who directly tries to offer assistance to any person on board a vessel which would be subject to section 5(1), then this will change the case from refugees seeking asylum to smugglers trying to enter Australia illegally (Global Detention, 2011, p.2). It is therefore important to put clearly establish the reasons ffor those on board and seeking entry. It should be noted that in cases of refugees seeking asylum, the claims must be verified as is usual and proper protocols in offering asylum followed. Referring to initial cases of refugees seeking asylum, according to Schneider a nd Daley (2011, p.1), the court in August 2011 ruled against the governments decision to send the refugees who had arrived to Malaysia signifying its illegality. Conclusion After the analysis given, it is important to state that the bill is unconstitutional according to the Australian laws and also considering the International treaties regarding refugees. Australian constitution provides for Refugees protection and rights as outlined by Stanley and should the bill get through, it will be possible to successfully challenge it before a court of law. However, it is important to outline that section 5(2) of the bill suggests smuggling as it involves a second party who is involved in helping out. The two sections of the bill are distinct therefore, section 51(xxix) does not support section 5 in a case of refugees seeking asylum but may be admissible in a case of an individual trying to smuggle a person(s) which would then be illegal and pose a threat to all Australians, United Nations. The cases of smuggling have been rampant with smugglers trying to use all loopholes available not only via the sea but via land and air as well. Therefore, in order not to co mpromise the security of Australians nor put the lives of refugees at stake, it will be important to put clear the reasons as to why people would want to gain access to the country. This means that it will be important to will be wise to have the bill amended before being passed to the House of Representatives and the senate for adoption if it is to successfully go through the House of Representatives and the senate without opposition. I strongly believe that the facts highlighted in this case will be of great help to you. Buy custom Letter of Advice on Constitutional Law essay

Marketing Plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Marketing Plan - Assignment Example Barclays' business mission is geared towards delivering top quarterly total shareholder returns as compared to its competitors(Kinnear, 1996) consistently over time and it seeks to manage marketing its products for value. The Macroenvironment has been very favourable to the implementation of the Barclays bank Platinum credit card launch in 2007. Its 20% share in the market has kept the encroaching competitors(Drucker, 1980) at bay. The Marketing mix of product, price, place and promotion have aided each other in the accomplishment of the company's ultimate goal of getting a big chunk of the new credit card clients starting in 2007. The strengths of the company like the well established Barclays bank as well as the opportunities to service new clients have helped in the forecast of getting a large share of Platinum credit card market. The weaknesses and the threats to the Barclays credit card has only a very minor miniscule effect on the forecasted sales of Platinum credit cards in 2007. The marketing objectives(Thompson, 1999) are to get a big chunk of the credit card market wi... The company will target its current clients and also look for new clients. 2.5 Budget, Marketing Mix The budget of 80,000 a month will be used for advertising in the radio, newspapers and television. This is a small budget because the company is banking on their satisfied clients' word of mouth advertising to help increase the sales(Irwin, 2000) of Barclays Platinum credit card. 3. Business Mission. Barclays' business mission1 is geared towards delivering top quarterly total shareholder returns as compared to its competitors consistently over time and it seeks to manage marketing its products for value. Recently Barclays integrated its Barclaycard credit card business with its personal lending businesses to create a single entity focused on meeting customer needs for credit according to UK Consumer finance. Barclaycard's strategy is to leverage the assets and capabilities of the new combined business to increase "share of wallet" through cross-selling to the larger customer base. The card issuer is also pushing into new markets internationally and forming partnerships and alliances to extend the brand appeal. Barclaycard is already the largest single credit card brand in the UK, with 10.8 million customers. 4. External Marketing Audit 4.1 Macroenvironment. 4.11 Economic. The business performance of Barclaycard is very outstanding, economically. It is currently one of the leading credit card businesses in Europe. Also, In addition to its operations in the UK, Barclaycard is has profitably entered the active booming credit card market in Germany, Spain, Greece, France, Italy and across Africa. Barclaycard has been offering the same full range of credit card services to individual and corporate customers it has been well